According to this report, organic light emitting diodes (OLED) technology advanced rapidly in 2011, a trend that will continue through this decade. OLED technology has progressed in areas including organic materials, color patterning, electronic driving methods, and encapsulation. However, the ability to scale OLED display manufacturing to fabs larger than the current Gen 5.5 has yet to be demonstrated, and the cost of larger panels is not yet clear.

OLED emerged in the 1980s from laboratories at Eastman Kodak in the US and Cambridge University in the UK, and was first commercialized in the late 1990s. Enthusiasm has increased recently as Samsung Mobile Displays has started manufacturing active matrix OLED (AMOLED) displays in a Gen 5.5 fab and announced plans to build a Gen 8 fab (as did LG Display), and several other suppliers entered or re-entered OLED display manufacturing, including AUO, CMI, IRICO, Tianma, and BOE.

This report details how OLEDs offer a solid-state solution for displays, lighting, and organic electronics. OLED displays can provide high contrast ratio, fast response time, wide color gamut, and wide viewing angle, while operating in a broad temperature range at low power consumption. In addition, OLED technology enables thin devices that can be both flexible and transparent.

OLED display revenues are estimated to exceed $4 billion in 2011 (approximately 4% of flat panel display revenues), and are forecast to reach more than $20 billion (approximately 16% of the total display industry by 2018. In addition, OLED lighting gained momentum in 2011, and is forecast to reach revenues of approximately $6 billion by 2018.

This report is a thorough assessment from our industry experts on:

• Market forecasts for OLED displays, OLED lighting and OLED products
• In depth profiles of OLED materials, bill of materials and forecasted demand
• Opportunities and challenges of various manufacturing processes
• Regional highlights and activities
• Analysis of additional opportunities in OLED displays such touch, 3D, flexible and more

Data Covered

• Forecasts from 2011 to 2020 of display and lighting shipments, and market demand
• Worldwide OLED display market history data from 1999 to 2010
• OLED display shipments, revenue, area and ASPs
• Regional activity coverage: Korea, Taiwan, China, Japan, US, Europe and rest-of-world
• Covered 100+ companies and universities related to OLED display and lighting
• OLED history, technology development, comparisons with LCDs, material positioning and IP
• OLED operations: diode structure, creation of light, alternative structures, display packaging
• Display performance: sunlight readability, touch screen, 3D display, flexible and transparent OLED
• Display applications: amusement, automobile monitor, automotive, desktop monitor, digital photo frame, digital still camera, home appliance, mini -note PC, mobile phone, mobile phone sub display, MP3 player, near eye, notebook PC, OLED TV, portable DVD player, portable media player, video camera, and others
• Lighting applications: general/decorative lighting, automobile lighting, healthcare/industry, signage/advertisement, backlights for LCD displays, and others
• Materials development: fluorescent small molecule material, phosphorescent small molecules, polymer materials, dendrimers, electrodes, enhanced extraction efficiency, substrates and sealants and desiccants
• Drive electronics: segmented displays, passive matrix drive, active matrix backplanes, inverted AMOLED designs, gray scale control, drive electronics
• Manufacturing: passive matrix process flow, LTPS TFT processes, surface preparation, electrode formation, deposition of small molecule organic material, polymer deposition, encapsulation and factory design
• Capacity and cost analysis

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1.0     Executive Summary
        1.1      History  1
                 1.1.1 PMOLED Supplier History 2
                 1.1.2 AMOLED Supplier History  3
                 1.1.3 China and OLEDS  4
        1.2      OLED Technology Development 5
                 1.2.1 Organic Material  7
                 1.2.2 OLED Electronics  9
                 1.2.3 Color Patterning 11
        1.3      Status and Forecast  14

2.0     Introduction
        2.1      History of OLEDs 20
        2.2      Comparison of OLEDs with LCDs  26
        2.3      Material Positioning  28
        2.4      OLED Nomenclature  30
        2.5      OLED Intellectual Property (IP)  31

3.0     OLED Structure and Mechanism  
        3.1      Diode Structure  35
        3.2      Creation of Light  42
                 3.2.1   Color Spectrum of Emitted Light         
                 3.2.2   Intensity of Emitted Light      52
                 3.2.3   Optimizing Light Extraction       57
                 3.2.4   Suppression of Ambient Light Reflection           
        3.3      Alternative Structures 68
                 3.3.1   Top vs Bottom Emission        68
                 3.3.2   Micro-Cavity    71
                 3.3.3   White Emitters with Color Filters        
                 3.3.4   Transparent and Stacked OLEDs            
        3.4      Display Packaging  79
                 3.4.1 Substrates 79
                 3.4.2 Encapsulation 81
                 3.4.3 Electrical Connections 82
                 Display Performance 84
                 3.5.1 Lifetime  84
                 3.5.2 Pow Consumption  93

4.0     OLED Display Applications
        4.1      Small/Medium PMOLED Display Applications  95
                 4.1.1   Mobile Phone Sub-Displays         95
                 4.1.2   Mobile Phone Main Displays and MP3 Players             
                 4.1.3   Displays in Vehicles     95
                 4.1.4   Commercial and Industrial Applications           
        4.2      Small/Medium AMOLED Displays  95
              4.2.1 Main Display Mobile Phones  95
              4.2.2 Camera Screens  95
              4.2.3 Personal Computer Screens  95
      4.3     TV and DVD Players  95
      4.4     Microdisplays 95
              4.4.1 Small Molecule Materials  95
              4.4.2 Polymer Materials 95
      4.5     OLED Display Shipment Volume  96
      4.6     OLED Display Revenue 96
      4.7     Glass Consumption  96
      4.8     Forecast Methodology  96
      4.9     Target Applications  96
      4.10    OLED Display Unit, Revenue, Area and ASP Forecasts  
      4.11    2006/2007 OLED Panel Producer Performance  96

5.0   Lighting Applications 
      5.1     Market Drivers and Challenges for OLED Lighting 101
      5.2     OLED Lighting vs Displays .103
      5.3     OLED Lighting Companies and Supply Chain 106
              5.3.1   Europe OLED Lighting107
              5.3.2   US OLED Lighting .110
              5.3.3   Japan OLED Lighting .114
              5.3.4   Korea OLED Lighting .117
              5.3.5   Taiw and Mainland China OLED Lighting 117
      5.4     OLED Lighting Manufacturing Methods 118
              5.4.1 Roll-to-Roll vs Batch 118
      5.5     OLED Lighting Market Forecast .123
              5.5.1 OLED Lighting Forecast by Application 127

6.0   Materials Development  
      6.1     Fluorescent Small Molecule Material 135
              6.1.1   Electron Transport Materials 136
              6.1.2   Hole Transport Materials 140
              6.1.3   Fluorescent Emitters 147
              6.1.4   Green Fluorescent Materials 147
              6.1.5   Blue Fluorescent Materials 151
              6.1.6   White Fluorescent Materials 153
              6.1.7   Color Changing Materials 158
      6.2     Phosphorescent Small Molecules 159
              6.2.1 Blue Phosphorescent Sources 167
              6.2.2 White Phosphorescent Sources 169
      6.3     Polymer Materials 171
              6.3.1 Charge Transport 174
              6.3.2 Luminescent Polymers 177
      6.4     Dendrimers 182
      6.5     Electrodes 184
              6.5.1 Anodes185
              6.5.2 Cathodes 193
              6.5.3 Contrast Enhancement Layers 202
      6.6     Enhanced Extraction Efficiency 205
              6.6.1 Micro-Lenses 206
      6.7     Substrates  209
              6.7.1 Transparent Plastic 210
              6.7.2   Process Temperature Tolerance 212
              6.7.3   Metal Foils 224
              6.7.4   Ultra-Thin Glass 227
              6.7.5   Barrier Coatings for Flexible Substrates 229
              6.7.6   Barrier Layers for Encapsulation.235
      6.8     Sealants and Desiccants 240
              6.8.1 Sealants 241
              6.8.2 Desiccants 245

7.0   Drive Electronics  
      7.1     Segmented Displays 249
      7.2     Passive Matrix Drive 250
      7.3     Active Matrix Backplanes 254
              7.3.1 Number of Transistors per Pixel 254
      7.4     Inverted AMOLED Designs 257
              7.4.1   Multiple TFT Designs for Compensation 263
              7.4.2   Current vs Voltage Drive 264
              7.4.3   Photo-Diodes and Optical Feedback 272
              7.4.4   Choice of TFT Material 274
              7.4.5   Low Temperature Poly-Silicon 277
              7.4.6   Amorphous Silicon TFT Arrays 291
              7.4.7   Oxide TFT Arrays 304
              7.4.8   Organic TFTs 309
              7.4.9   Other TFTs  324
      7.5     Gray Scale Control: Digital or Analog Drive? 325
      7.6     Motion Anomalies328
      7.7     Drive Electronics 332
              7.7.1 Driver IC Design 335
              7.7.2 Pow Saving 338

8.0   Manufacturing
      8.1     Passive Matrix Process Flow342
              8.1.1 PMOLED Devices with SM Materials .343
              8.1.2 Passive Matrix Devices with Polymer Materials
      8.2     Active Matrix Backplane 349
              8.2.1   LTPS TFT Process 349
              8.2.2   Manufacturing Processes 354
              8.2.3   LTPS Process Temperatures & Glass Substrates
              8.2.4   Active Matrix OLEDs 359
      8.3     Surface Preparation 360
              8.3.1 Particle Inspection 361
              8.3.2 Surface Cleaning 362
              8.3.3 ITO Surface Treatment 364
      8.4     Electrode Formation 367
              8.4.1   Anode Deposition 367
              8.4.2   Anode Patterning 368
              8.4.3   Cathode Deposition 368
              8.4.4   Cathode Patterning  369
      8.5     Deposition of Small Molecule Organic Material.370
              8.5.1   Shadow Masks 374
              8.5.2   Point Sources 380
              8.5.3   Linear Sources 381
              8.5.4   Vapor Injection Linear Source384
              8.5.5   Organic Vapor Phase Deposition with Carrier-Gas 394
                8.5.6   Roll-to-Roll Vacuum Deposition Systems 403
                8.5.7   Laser Transfer Processes 404
                8.5.8   Alternative Approaches to Color Patterning 414
                8.5.9   Solution Processing of Small Molecule Materials 414
        8.6     Polymer Deposition 416
                8.6.1   Ink-Jet Printing417
                8.6.2   Continuous Nozzle Printing 453
                8.6.3   Color Patterning by Irradiation 457
                8.6.4   Photolithography457
                8.6.5   Traditional Contact Printing.458
                8.6.6   Hybrid Process of Both Solution and Evaporation 461
                8.6.7   Organic TFT Backplanes .467
                8.6.8   Patterning Conductors .471
        8.7     Encapsulation.475
                8.7.1 Glass Ledges.478
                8.7.2 In-Situ Deposition of Protective Films 479
        8.8     Factory Design .480

9.0     Capacity Analysis 484
        9.1     Current and Forecast Fabs .484
                9.1.1   BOE487
                9.1.2   CMEL 487
                9.1.3   Irico .488
                9.1.4   Japan Display488
                9.1.5   LGD488
                9.1.6   SMD .488
        9.2     Capacity and Demand489
        9.3     Supply and Demand 489
        9.4     Organic Material Demand.491
        9.5     Total Material Demand.494

10.0 Cost Analysis 
        10.1 Comparison of AMOLED, a-Si LCD & LTPS LCD 498
        10.2 3.5" QVGA AMOLED Display Cost Analysis 500
        10.3 55" OLED Cost Analysis .502

List of Figures

Figure 1.1    PMOLED and AMOLED Shipments (1999-2010)  2
Figure 1.2    China PMOLED and AMOLED Fabs (2010-2013)  5
Figure 1.3    Samsung Flexible OLED Display (left) and Plastic LCD Demo (right)  12
Figure 1.4    Medium and Large OLED Display s in the Mark et 16
Figure 1.5    Long-Term OLED Display Forecast Through 2018  17
Figure 1.6    OLED Lighting Mark et Forecast by Rev enue 18
Figure 2.1    OLED Materials Chemical Structure  29
Figure 2.2    US OLED-Related Patents  33
Figure 3.1    Creation of Light from Recombination of Electron-Hole Pairs 37
Figure 3.2    Energy Flow from Electron-Hole Recombination  38
Figure 3.3    Probability of Forming Singlet Excitons  38
Figure 3.4    Energy Lev els in Poly mer OLEDs 39
Figure 3.5    Lay er Structure of a Phosphorescent OLED 40
Figure 3.6    PIN Doping Concept to Increase Inter-Lay er Conductivity  42
Figure 3.7    Bottom Emitting Device Structure with Doped Transport Lay ers  42
Figure 3.8    Outcoupling  44
Figure 3.9    Spectra of Traditional Small Molecule Materials from Eastman Kodak  45
Figure 3.10   Spectra of the Ey e's Color Receptors  46
Figure 3.11   Impact of Narrowing Design and Effects of Microcav ity  46
Figure 3.12   CIE 1931 x-y Color Chart  47
Figure 3.13   Spectrum of Blue Emitter from Idemitsu Kosan  48
Figure 3.14   Spectrum of Red Phosphorescent Emitter from Covion (acquired by Merck)  49
Figure 3.15   Absorption and Emission Spectra of Color Changing Materials  50
Figure 3.16   Hybrid Color Conversion Scheme  50
Figure 3.17   Spectra of Hybrid CCM OLEDs  51
Figure 3.18   Luminous Efficacy of an Ideal Monochromatic Light Source 52
Figure 3.19   Luminance and Current Density of Green Phosphorescent Materials  53
Figure 3.20   Luminous Efficacy of Green Phosphorescent Materials in cd/A and lm/W 54
Figure 3.21   Luminance-Voltage Plots for Various Emitters  55
Figure 3.22   External Quantum Efficiency of Phosphorescent Emitters 56
Figure 3.23   Lay er Structure of PIN OLEDs 57
Figure 3.24   Light Trapping in Two-Lay er System  58
Figure 3.25   Refractiv e Indices of Selected OLED Materials 58
Figure 3.26   Outcoupling Efficiency of Green Dev ices 59
Figure 3.27   Reduction of Total Internal Reflection by Surface Texturing  60
Figure 3.28   Schematic of Simulation Sy stem for Surface Texturing  60
Figure 3.29   Photomicrograph of Pyramid Array  61
Figure 3.30   Effect of Photonic Cry stal Lay er in Increasing Extraction Efficiency  61
Figure 3.31   Dimple Interface Technology to Reduce Color Shifts in Off-Axis Viewing  62
Figure 3.32   Efficacy of Green PIN OLED with Outcoupling Enhancement  62
Figure 3.33   Samsung Omnia Phone with AMOLED Display in Sunlight (left) and Indoors (right)  63
Figure 3.34   Color Gamut and Contrast Ratio as a Function of Ambient Light Lev el for AMOLED and Transmissiv e LCD  64
Figure 3.35   Color Gamut and Contrast Ratio as a Function of Ambient Light Lev el for AMOLED and Transmissiv e LCD  64
Figure 3.36   Contrast Ratio as a Function of Ambient Light Lev el for AMOLED and Transflectiv e LCD 65
Figure 3.37   Variation of Reflectance of Black Lay er with Wav elength and Viewing Angle 66
Figure 3.38   Color Shifts in a Conv entional OLED and One with Black Lay er Technology  66
Figure 3.39   Reflectance of OLEDs With and Without Contrast Enhancement  67
Figure 3.40   Top Emission (left) and Bottom Emission (right) Structures 69
Figure 3.41   CIE Chromaticity Chart for Sony Top Emission Dev ice v s Conventional OLED  71
Figure 3.42   Viewing Angle Variation of Green Emission in Cavity-Type Dev ice  71
Figure 3.43   OLED Tandem Architecture with RGBW Color Filter 72
Figure 3.44   Efficacies of RGBW Patterning through Color Filter  
Figure 3.45   Power Consumption Comparison Between RGB and RGBW Pixel Arrangements 74
Figure 3.46   LG Display 's 15" AMOLED Demo  75
Figure 3.47   OLED with Unpatterned Blue Lay er  76
Figure 3.48   Prototypes of Transparent AMOLED: 14" (left) and 19" (right) 77
Figure 3.49   Three Lay er White OLED Designed for LCD Back light
Figure 3.50   Structure of Top-Emitting OLED on a Metal Foil Substrate  80
Figure 3.51   Potential for Thickness Reduction 81
Figure 3.52   IC Bonding for PMOLEDs  82
Figure 3.53   Polymer OLED Display Pack aging  83
Figure 3.54   Comparison of Performance of OLEDs and LCDs  84
Figure 3.55   Dependence of Lifetime on Ambient Temperature  87
Figure 3.56   Lifetime Measurements at Two Temperatures 88
Figure 3.57   Growth of Spots and Gaps  88
Figure 3.58   Accelerated Lifetime Measurements of Red Phosphorescent Materials  89
Figure 3.59   DuPont OLED Lifetime by Year, 2006-2009 91
Figure 3.60   Lifetime Improv ement of AMOLED Cell Phone Display s in 2001-2005  92
Figure 3.61   Comparativ e Power Consumption in Cell Phone Application 93
Figure 5.1    US Energy Consumption by Lamp Type in Each Application Mark et  98
Figure 5.2    OLED Lighting Material Cost ($/m²)  104
Figure 5.3    OLED Lighting Supply Chain  106
Figure 5.4    OLED100 Project: Large OLED Lighting Dev eloped by Fraunhofer IPMS  108
Figure 5.5    First OLED Lamp in the Mark et  109
Figure 5.6    COMEDD OLED Lighting  110
Figure 5.7    DuPont OLED Lighting Prototype 111
Figure 5.8    Acuity OLED Lighting Demo  113
Figure 5.9    Visionox OLED Lighting Demo  118
Figure 5.10   Vertical In-Line Sy stem Installed at Fraunhofer IPMS  119
Figure 5.11   Photograph (top) and Schematic View (bottom) of the Four Organic Evaporation Modules of the Vertical In-Line-Deposition Sy stem Installed at the Fraunhofer IPMS  120
Figure 5.12   Roll-to-Roll Pilot Equipment R2FLEX 300  121
Figure 5.13   Roll-To-Roll PECVD (Plasma Enhanced Chemical Vapor Deposition) Sy stem Built at GE  122
Figure 5.14   Flexible OLED Lighting Demos 122
Figure 5.15   OLED Lighting Participants Roadmap  123
Figure 5.16   OLED Lighting Mark et Forecast: Shipment (in m²) 126
Figure 5.17   OLED Lighting Mark et Forecast: Rev enue 126
Figure 5.18   OLED ASP ($/m²) Forecast  127
Figure 6.1    OLED Progress: Material Efficiency Luminance  133
Figure 6.2    Structure of Typical Small Molecule Materials 135
Figure 6.3    Energy Lev els of Typical Small Molecule Materials  135
Figure 6.4    The Archetypical Molecule Alq 3, Used in Electron Transport and Emitting Lay ers  136
Figure 6.5    I-V Characteristics of Small Molecule OLED Based upon Alq 3  136
Figure 6.6    Current Density v s Voltage 137
Figure 6.7    Luminance v s Voltage  138
Figure 6.8    Structure of Molecules Used in Hole-Blocking Lay ers 139
Figure 6.9    Luminance Decay Curv es for Red Phosphorescent Emitters with HBLs of Various Materials  140
Figure 6.10   Luminance Decay Curv es for Red Emitters with BAlq HBL of Various Thickness  140
Figure 6.11   Hole Transport Materials 141
Figure 6.12   EL Intensity with TPD and NPB Hole Transport Lay ers 142
Figure 6.13   Current Density -Luminance with TPD and NPB Hole Transport Lay ers  142
Figure 6.14   TPD and NPB Hole Transport Lay ers 143
Figure 6.15   Materials to Enhance Hole Injection  144
Figure 6.16   Comparison of Small Molecule and Poly mer Materials in Hole Injection Lay ers  144
Figure 6.17   Particle Size Distribution in PANI and PEDT  145
Figure 6.18   IV Characteristics for Polyspiro-Deep-Green on 20 nm PANI (red) and 20 nm PEDOT (blue)  145
Figure 6.19   Effect of Carbon Bond Enhancement in Hole Injection Layer  146
Figure 6.20   L-I Characteristics of Small Molecule OLED with Alq 3 Doped with C545T  148
Figure 6.21   Green Fluorescent Devices 148
Figure 6.22   Traditional Red Dopants for Alq 3 Hosts  149
Figure 6.23   Energy Transfer from Alq 3 to DCM2 v ia Rubrene  
Figure 6.24   L-V Characteristics of Cells with 2% DCM2 and Varying Rubrene Density  150
Figure 6.25   Molecular Structure of Blue Dopants and Host  151
Figure 6.26   Lifetime of Blue Fluorescent Materials with PIN Structure  152
Figure 6.27   Performance of Blue PIN OLED Stack s 152
Figure 6.28   Blue Emission Lev els 152
Figure 6.29   Stack Structure and Spectrum of Two Component White Emitter  153
Figure 6.30   Color Shift with Aging of Small Molecule Emitters  154
Figure 6.31   Spectrum of White Emitter and Color Filters  154
Figure 6.32   Effect of Buffer Lay er on OLED Spectrum 155
Figure 6.33   Lifetime Measurements of White Emitters With and Without a Control Lay er  155
Figure 6.34   OLED Tandem Architecture with Two White Emitting Lay ers  157
Figure 6.35   Architecture of a PIN Reference OLED (left) Without Out-coupling and Device A (right) with Novaled's Improv ed Light Extraction 158
Figure 6.36   Absorption and Emission Spectra for Color Changing Materials  159
Figure 6.37   Triplet Emission Facilitated by Heavy Metal Ligand Charge Transfer Complexes  160
Figure 6.38   Molecular Structure of Iridium Based Phosphorescent Emitters 161
Figure 6.39   Phosphorescent Material 162
Figure 6.40   Luminous Efficiencies v s Luminance for PHOLED Material (RD07 and RD61 Dopant) 165
Figure 6.41   OLED Materials with PIN Structures 166
Figure 6.42   Lifetime Data for Bottom-Emitting PIN OLEDs 167
Figure 6.43   Simplification of Structure of Phosphorescent Stacks 167
Figure 6.44   Efficiency of Phosphorescent Blue Emitters 168
Figure 6.45   Color Coordinates and Efficiencies of Phosphorescent RGB Emitters  169
Figure 6.46   Spectrum and Efficiency of White Phosphorescent Emitter  170
Figure 6.47   Efficiency of White Phosphorescent Emitter  170
Figure 6.48   Original Poly mer Materials  172
Figure 6.49   Structure of Poly-Spiro Materials  173
Figure 6.50   Ideal Matching of Electron and Hole Currents with 100% Recombination in a Single Lay er  174
Figure 6.51   High Current Densities Obtained at Low Voltage from Light Emitting Poly mers  174
Figure 6.52   High Current Densities Obtained at Low Voltage from Light Emitting Poly mers  176
Figure 6.53   Lifetime of 64 Multiplexed Passiv e Matrix P-OLEDs  
Figure 6.54   Voltage v s Efficiency Curve  179
Figure 6.55   Comparison of PL and Excitation Spectra with Different T1 Lev el Hosts  179
Figure 6.56   Effect of T1 Lev el Host and PLQY of Red Emitters  
Figure 6.57   Host Poly mers v s Red Materials  180
Figure 6.58   PL Intensity Reduction over Time 181
Figure 6.59   Driving Voltage Change Ov er Time BPD (solid), EOD (dotted) HOD (dashed) 181
Figure 6.60    Structure of Light-Emitting Dendrimers 182
Figure 6.61    Power Efficiency and Luminance-Voltage for Sky-Blue Dendrimer Source 184
Figure 6.62    Effect of Oxygen Treatment on Luminance of Single Lay er P-OLED 186
Figure 6.63    ITO Surface Structure as Recorded by an Atomic Force Microscope 187
Figure 6.64    SEM Micrograph of p-ITO Surface Annealed to (a) 140°C and (b) 220°C 188
Figure 6.65    Scanning Electron Microscopy Image of an Imprinting Mold 191
Figure 6.66    I-V Curves with Various Metal Anodes and ITO  192
Figure 6.67    Effect of O 2 Treatment on Current from Ni Anode
Figure 6.68    Relativ e Efficiency of Polyfluorene P-OLEDs with Different Metal Cathodes 193
Figure 6.69    Relativ e Efficiency of Polyfluorene P-OLEDs with Cathodes of Varying Thickness  194
Figure 6.70    Dependence of Current Density on Cathode Interface Lay er in Blue Polyfluorene LEP  194
Figure 6.71    Dependence of Luminance on Cathode Interface Lay er in Blue Polyfluorene LEP  195
Figure 6.72    Transmission of ITO-Metal-ITO Multilay er on Glass
Figure 6.73    Transmission of ITO/Metal/ITO Cathodes 196
Figure 6.74    Structure of Transparent OLED 197
Figure 6.75    Transparency of OLED as a Function of Wavelength  
Figure 6.76    Transmittance of Ca-Ag Double Films on Glass Substrates  198
Figure 6.77    Current-Voltage Characteristics for Sev eral Electron Injector Lay ers  198
Figure 6.78    Current Voltage Characteristics with Various Metallic Lay ers on the Cathode  199
Figure 6.79    Uniformity of Li Deposition on a 300 × 400 mm Glass Substrate 200
Figure 6.80    SEM Pictures of Self-Healing Electrodes  201
Figure 6.81    Color Gamut and Contrast Ratio as a Function of Ambient Light Lev el for AMOLED and Transmissive LCD  202
Figure 6.82    Structure of EL Device with Optical-Interference Black Lay er 203
Figure 6.83    Comparison of a CES Assisted and Conventional EL Display  204
Figure 6.84    Reflectance of an Integrated CES Sy stem 204
Figure 6.85    Reduction of Reflection of Ambient Light by Thin Film Polarizer  205
Figure 6.86    Operation of the Compound Parabolic Extractor  206
Figure 6.87    Geometry of the Compound Parabolic Extractor  206
Figure 6.88    Total Extracted Flux v s Extreme Angle  ex  207
Figure 6.89    Luminance v s Viewing Angle with and without CPE 2
Figure 6.90    SEM Images of Microlens Array s and Schematic of Process  208
Figure 6.91    Effect of Microlens Array on Current Density and Luminance 209
Figure 6.92    Basic Properties of PEN (Teonex) and PET (Melinex) 211
Figure 6.93    Glass Transition and Melting Temperatures for Selected Plastics  213
Figure 6.94    Thermal Expansion of Heat Stabilized PEN and Unstabilized PET 213
Figure 6.95    Polyester Film Formation Process  214
Figure 6.96    Thermo-Mechanical Tests of High-Heat Lexan 214
Figure 6.97    Processing Temperatures for Plastic Substrates 215
Figure 6.98    Thermal Expansion of PC, PES and Fiber Reinforced Plastic 217
Figure 6.99    Dependence of Stiffness on Temperature for PET and PEN  218
Figure 6.100   Elastic Modulus of PC, PES and Fiber Reinforced Plastic 218
Figure 6.101   Moisture Loss on Heating 219
Figure 6.102   Moisture Absorption at 200°C on Cooling  219
Figure 6.103   Optical Transmission of Uncoated Lexan  220
Figure 6.104   Optical Transmission of Lexan with Protectiv e Coating and ITO Film  220
Figure 6.105   Optical Transmission of Teonex Q65 without and with Coatings 221
Figure 6.106   Calcium Test for Detecting Slow Permeation of O 2 or H2O through Films 222
Figure 6.107   Typical Surface Conditions of Industrial Grade PEN
Figure 6.108   Typical Surface Conditions of Teonex Q65 223
Figure 6.109   Effect of Improved Manufacturing and Planarization on Smoothness  224
Figure 6.110   Polishing Stainless Steel Substrates  225
Figure 6.111   AFM Image of a Metal Foil after Polishing 226
Figure 6.112   Flexible AMOLED Display Based on Metal Foil Substrate  226
Figure 6.113   Flexibility of Ultra-thin Glass  227
Figure 6.114   Bend Radius and Allowable Stress for Thin Glass  227
Figure 6.115   Ultra-Thin Glass with Poly mer Coating  228
Figure 6.116   Corning Flexible Glass: Willow  229
Figure 6.117   Water Permeation of Plastic Materials and OLED Requirements  230
Figure 6.118   Smoothing Effect of Barrier Coatings 231
Figure 6.119   Water Damage through Hybrid Coatings with Vary ing Numbers of Pairs  231
Figure 6.120   Permeation through Single and Double Film Pairs
Figure 6.121   Defect Positions in Multilay er Barriers 232
Figure 6.122   Permeation Mechanism in Multilay er Barriers  233
Figure 6.123   Graded Barrier Lay er Structure and its Transmissiv ity  234
Figure 6.124   Moisture Permeation Rate for Graded Barrier Lay er Structures  234
Figure 6.125   OLED Shelf Lifetime Test (at 23ºC and 50% RH) 235
Figure 6.126   Barix Film Encapsulation Process  236
Figure 6.127   Transmission through Ca Encapsulated by Barix films at 60°C and 70% RH  237
Figure 6.128   Barix Encapsulation ov er OLED Structures 237
Figure 6.129   Particle Coverage by Multilay er Barriers  237
Figure 6.130   OLED Performance after Accelerated Aging  238
Figure 6.131   Prototype Encapsulation Tool  238
Figure 6.132   Web Coater Barrier Deposition Sy stem 238
Figure 6.133   Step Cov erage of NON on Structures with Undercuts  
Figure 6.134   Optical Transmission of Plastic Substrate with Inorganic Multilay er Films  240
Figure 6.135   Typical Geometry for Edge Seals Showing Three Routes for Moisture Penetration  241
Figure 6.136   Dependence of Water Vapor Permeation on Seal Width
Figure 6.137   Bulk Permeability of Moisture through Sealants 243
Figure 6.138   Glass-to-Glass Shear Strength for Various Adhesives 244
Figure 6.139   Absorption of Water by Various Desiccants from Vapor at 25°C  245
Figure 6.140   Edge Growth with Differing Desiccant Applications  
Figure 6.141   Effect of Raising the Temperature to 85°C on Wet Desiccant  246
Figure 7.1     Prototype Smart Card with Segmented OLED Display  
Figure 7.2     Potential Applications for Segmented OLED Display  
Figure 7.3     Passiv e and Activ e Matrix Circuits  251
Figure 7.4     Passiv e Matrix Addressing of OLED Panels: Light Blue - Pixels On, Black - Pixels Off  252
Figure 7.5     AMOLED Pixel Structure with Two TFTs  255
Figure 7.6     Traditional Two Transistor Pixel Circuit  255
Figure 7.7     Rev ersed Driv e of OLED Pixels 256
Figure 7.8     a-Si on PEN  257
Figure 7.9     Instability of a-Si on PEN  258
Figure 7.10    TFTs Processed at 300 C on Plastic  258
Figure 7.11    Low Field v s High Field Stability  259
Figure 7.12    Vth Shift v s Stress Time 260
Figure 7.13    Typical TFT/OLED Structure 260
Figure 7.14    Typical TFT/AMOLED Pixel Schematic  261
Figure 7.15    Inverted AMOLED with Standard (Bottom Anode) Structure  261
Figure 7.16    Inverted AMOLED TFTs  262
Figure 7.17    Conv entional v s Inv erted AMOLED  262
Figure 7.18    Lifetime: Conventional v s Inv erted Structure  263
Figure 7.19    Four-TFT Design  263
Figure 7.20   Non-Uniformities in Luminance: (a) 2-Transistor Circuit, (b) 4-Transistor Circuit 264
Figure 7.21   Voltage Drift with a-Si and p-Si Transistors 265
Figure 7.22   Four-Transistor "Mirror" Circuit to Minimize Effects of Threshold Variation 266
Figure 7.23   Structure of Current Copier Circuit  266
Figure 7.24   Improved Uniformity of Current Copier Circuit 267
Figure 7.25   Effects of I-R Drop 267
Figure 7.26   New Circuit to Compensate for IR Drop  268
Figure 7.27   Pixel Circuit to Compensate for Threshold Drifts and Voltage Drops  268
Figure 7.28   Compensation for Threshold Drifts and Voltage Drops
Figure 7.29   Comparison of Voltage Control of OLED Pixels  269
Figure 7.30   Current Control of OLED Pixels  270
Figure 7.31   Four-TFT Pixel Circuit for Stable Current Control  
Figure 7.32   Lifetime and Robustness Results 271
Figure 7.33   IGNIS and RiTdisplay a-Si TFT AMOLED demo  271
Figure 7.34   Pixel Circuit with Optical Feedback  272
Figure 7.35   Effect of an Optical Feedback Sy stem in Compensating for Burn-In Degradation  273
Figure 7.36   Improved Optical Feedback Circuit  273
Figure 7.37   Pixel Structures with Photo-Diode  274
Figure 7.38   TFT Structures: Bottom Gate (left) and Top Gate (right)  275
Figure 7.39   Voltage Drift with a-Si and p-Si Transistors 278
Figure 7.40   I-V characteristics of NMOS and PMOS Poly silicon Transistors (logarithmic scale)  278
Figure 7.41   Structure of NMOS GOLDD Transistor  279
Figure 7.42   Non-Uniformity in Poly-Si TFTs 280
Figure 7.43   Stability of Pixels with Two p-Si TFTs 280
Figure 7.44   Efficiencies of Small Molecule OLEDs  281
Figure 7.45   Pixel Structure for Upward Emission  281
Figure 7.46   AMOLED on Metal Foil 283
Figure 7.47   AMOLED on Metal Foil Process  284
Figure 7.48   Temperature Rise in the Si and SiO 2 Lay ers and the Substrate during Laser Annealing 285
Figure 7.49   Flexible Poly-Si Backplane after Delamination from 6" Wafer  286
Figure 7.50   I-V Characteristic of n-Channel TFTs Made by ULTPS Process  287
Figure 7.51   Characteristics of pMOS Dev ice Produced by ULTPS Processing  287
Figure 7.52   Flexible AMOLED on Plastic Substrate  288
Figure 7.53   Flexible AMOLED on Plastic Substrate  288
Figure 7.54   ITRI PI and Hybrid Material  289
Figure 7.55   Conv entional Plastic Handling and IRTI Bond/Debond Method 290
Figure 7.56   Thinnest AMOLED Display on Glass  291
Figure 7.57   a-Si TFT Structure for Phosphorescent OLED  292
Figure 7.58   Pixel Structure for 80 ppi Monochrome Phosphorescent AMOLED 292
Figure 7.59   Pixel I-V Curv es for Phosphorescent AMOLED with a-Si TFTs  293
Figure 7.60   Pixel Currents and Panel Brightness in OLED with a-Si Backplane  294
Figure 7.61   Polymer-OLED with a-Si Backplane 294
Figure 7.62   Dependence of Aspect Ratio on Mobility 295
Figure 7.63   Pixel Sizing for OLEDs Driv en by a-Si TFTs  295
Figure 7.64   a-Si TFT and OLED Pixel Structures 296
Figure 7.65   Dependence of OLED Currents on Data Input and Operational Lifetime  297
Figure 7.66   LG Display AMOLED with a-Si TFT 298
Figure 7.67   I-V Characteristics of Flexible Display under Compressiv e Stress  299
Figure 7.68   Structure of OLED Pixel with a-Si TFTs Fabricated at 150°C  300
Figure 7.69   a-Si TFTs at the Four Corners of the Array  301
Figure 7.70   Performance of a-Si TFTs Fabricated at 150°C  301
Figure 7.71    TFT Structure and Completed Backplane on Kapton
Figure 7.72    Fiv e-Mask Process for a-Si TFTs on Plastic 302
Figure 7.73    Processing Scheme for a-Si TFTs on PES 303
Figure 7.74    Flexible AMOLED with a-Si TFT on plastic substrate  304
Figure 7.75    Cross-Section of the Bottom-Gate Staggered ZIO TFT Test Structure  306
Figure 7.76    SAIT IZO TFT Schematic Cross Section (a) and (b) Cross-Section TEM Image and AMOLED Demo (right) 307
Figure 7.77    Samsung Mobile Display Flexible AMOLED with Oxide TFT 307
Figure 7.78    AUO Indium-Oxide TFT (a) Cross Section, (b) Top View  308
Figure 7.79    Mobility and Grain Count for Pentacene on Various Underlay ers  310
Figure 7.80    Polymer Aperture Mask and I-V Characteristics of Pentacene Transistors  311
Figure 7.81    TFT Structure and PES Substrate with Pentacene TFTs  312
Figure 7.82    I-V Characteristics: without Surface Treatment (a) and with Treatment (b) 312
Figure 7.83    OLED Pixel Structure with Pentacene TFTs 313
Figure 7.84    Id v s Vgs and Vds  313
Figure 7.85    OLED Structure and Emission with 16 Intensity Lev els  314
Figure 7.86    Self-Assembled Monolay er Gate Dielectrics 314
Figure 7.87    SAM-TFT Characteristics  315
Figure 7.88    Performance of Complementary Organic Circuits 316
Figure 7.89    Relativ e Stability and Mobility of Organic Semiconductors 317
Figure 7.90    Improvements in Mobility of Organic Semiconductors  317
Figure 7.91    Performance of Organic TFTs 318
Figure 7.92    Organic TFTs with Double-Lay er Dielectrics 318
Figure 7.93    P3HT Transistor Characteristics in Air  319
Figure 7.94    Structure of Two Thiophenes  319
Figure 7.95    New Merck Terthiophene 320
Figure 7.96    I-V Characteristics of Terthiophenes 320
Figure 7.97    Aging Behav ior of On/Off Ratio of Terthiophene
Figure 7.98    Organic Material Set for Chip Printing at PolyIC
Figure 7.99    Silk for Organic TFT  322
Figure 7.100   Comparison of Pentacene on SiO 2 and on Silk Fibroin 323
Figure 7.101   Adventech 4" AMOLED Demo  325
Figure 7.102   Digital Driv ing for Time-Ratio Gray-Scale 326
Figure 7.103   Clamped Inv erter Driving 326
Figure 7.104   Time Modulated and Divided Driving Scheme  327
Figure 7.105   Image Quality with 64 Gray Lev els 327
Figure 7.106   Three-TFT Pixel Circuit Used by Sony to Achiev e Pulsed Driving  328
Figure 7.107   Variation of Luminance in Adv anced Clamped Inv erter Method 328
Figure 7.108   Pixel Circuit  329
Figure 7.109   Timing Chart for Advanced Clamped Inv erter Method  
Figure 7.110   Gray-Scale Variation with Pixel Properties 331
Figure 7.111   Gray-Scale Variation in Sev en Neighboring Pixels  331
Figure 7.112   Luminance Modulation with Load  332
Figure 7.113   Output Timing in Column Driv er IC  333
Figure 7.114   Block Diagram of Integrated Driver/Controller for PM-OLED 334
Figure 7.115   Pixel Driving with and without Pre-Charge 335
Figure 7.116   Pattern-Dependent Current Variations  336
Figure 7.117   Driv er Roadmap for Cell Phone PMOLEDs 337
Figure 7.118   Possible Structures for Non-Volatile Memory  338
Figure 7.119   Factors Controlling Power Consumption  339
Figure 7.120   Power Consumption v s Turn-On Area  339
Figure 7.121   Power Consumption for Typical Image Patterns  340
Figure 7.122   Power Sav ing Modes 340
Figure 8.1     Manufacturing Process Ov erv iew 341
Figure 8.2     Tokki Process Flows for Small Molecule and Poly mer OLEDs 343
Figure 8.3     Three-Cluster Production Sy stem for Small Molecule OLEDs 345
Figure 8.4     Simplified Representation of the Process Flow for P-OLED Fabrication  348
Figure 8.5     Production System for Poly mer OLEDs 349
Figure 8.6     Simple Top v s Bottom Gate Block Diagrams 352
Figure 8.7     Comparison Between a-Si TFTs, Bottom Gate and Top Gate LTPS TFT Process Steps  352
Figure 8.8     9-Mask Top Gate CMOS LTPS Process Flow Example 355
Figure 8.9     7-Mask PMOS LTPS Process  356
Figure 8.10    Thermal Shrink age v s Holding Times  358
Figure 8.11    Structure of Bottom-Emitting AM-OLED 359
Figure 8.12    AMOLED "Cell" Process 360
Figure 8.13    Particle Detection Equipment using Mie Scattering
Figure 8.14    Two Common Drying Techniques to Follow Wet Cleans
Figure 8.15    ITO Surface (a) Before and (b) After Plasma Treatment with Oxygen  365
Figure 8.16    Drop Shape Dependence on Contact Angle 365
Figure 8.17    Luminance of OLED Dev ices with Capped ITO  366
Figure 8.18    Dark Spot Formation on Cathodes Due to Oxygen or Moisture 368
Figure 8.19    Structure of Cathode Separators in Passiv e Matrix OLED Display s  369
Figure 8.20    Microscopic Picture of Cathode Separators and Deposited Lay ers 370
Figure 8.21    Micrograph of RGB Pixels Produced by Shadow Mask Patterning  371
Figure 8.22    X-Y Stage for Metal Mask Sliding and Position Control 372
Figure 8.23    SEM Images of Shadow Mask s  373
Figure 8.24    Film Thickness Profiles for Straight-Walled Mask s
Figure 8.25    Film Thickness Profiles for Tapered Mask s 375
Figure 8.26    Bending and Distortion of Shadow Mask s 376
Figure 8.27    Accuracy of Mask Alignment 376
Figure 8.28    In-Situ Sy stem for Mask Cleaning 377
Figure 8.29    In-Line OLED Production System with In-Situ Cleaning 378
Figure 8.30    Nick el Metal Mask  378
Figure 8.31    Lithographic Processes for Mask Production: (a) Electroplating (Athene), (b) Etching 379
Figure 8.32    Profilometer Measurements of Film thickness Inside a Pixel  379
Figure 8.33    Effectiv eness of Cathode Separator as Integrated Mask in Deposition from a Linear Source 380
Figure 8.34    Deposition Control in Ev aporation of Organic Materials 380
Figure 8.35    Concept of the Linear Evaporation Source 381
Figure 8.36    Deposition Rate as a Function of Position (left) Along the Scanned direction; (right) Along the Source 382
Figure 8.37    Schematic Drawing of Source Assembly in Vacuum Chamber  383
Figure 8.38    RGB Patterning v s White OLEDs with Integrated Color Filters  384
Figure 8.39    Existing Point and Linear Ev aporation Source 385
Figure 8.40    Sample Gen 5 Vapor Injection Linear Ev aporation Source 385
Figure 8.41    Vapor Injection Linear Ev aporation Source  386
Figure 8.42    Vapor Injection Linear Ev aporation Source Profile
Figure 8.43    Ev aporation Sy stem for Vertical Substrates 387
Figure 8.44    Thickness Uniformity Along the Source for Alq 3 Deposited from Linear Evaporation Sy stem  388
Figure 8.45    Thickness Uniformity Along the Direction of Motion for Linear Ev aporation Sy stem 388
Figure 8.46    Dynamic Deposition Rate from Linear Ev aporation Source as a Function of Temperature 389
Figure 8.47    Schematic Drawing of a Monochrome OLED Line Based on the VES 400  390
Figure 8.48    Variation of Deposition Rates: (a) Spatial and (b) Temporal  390
Figure 8.49   Fluorescence Spectrum (left) and Efficiency (right) of Monochrome OLED 391
Figure 8.50   Vertical Evaporation Source as Used at the Fraunhofer Institute IPMS  391
Figure 8.51   Vertical Thickness Distribution from the Linear Ev aporation Source 392
Figure 8.52   Horizontal Variation in Film Thickness 392
Figure 8.53   Mask Alignment in Adjoining Module within the Same Vacuum Chamber 393
Figure 8.54   Illustration of Vertical Scanning Mask Method  394
Figure 8.55   Schematic Diagram of the Initial OVPD-Technology  
Figure 8.56   Close Coupled Shower head OVPD-Technology  396
Figure 8.57   Control of Deposition Rate in OVPD 397
Figure 8.58   Co-Doping with OVPD  397
Figure 8.59   Precision Co-Doping 398
Figure 8.60   Run-to-Run Reproducibility of Deposition Rates for OVPD 398
Figure 8.61   Control of Deposition Rate through Gas Flow  399
Figure 8.62   Uniformity of OVPD Deposition of Alq 3  399
Figure 8.63   Deposition Rate of Alq 3 v s Time for Two Test Runs
Figure 8.64   Hybrid OLED Structure Formed by OVPD 400
Figure 8.65   AFM Analy sis of -NPD Single Lay ers on Si Wafers  
Figure 8.66   OVPD Production Sy stem with Cluster Handler 402
Figure 8.67   Reproducibility (a) and Spatial Uniformity (b) of DSP Deposition Rate 402
Figure 8.68   Roll-to-Roll Vacuum Deposition Sy stem with 10 Chambers 403
Figure 8.69   Roll-to-roll Vacuum Deposition Sy stem for Poly mer Coating  404
Figure 8.70   Schematic of the LITI Process  405
Figure 8.71   Optical Chain in Laser Induced Thermal Imaging 406
Figure 8.72   Laser Induced Transfer Mechanism from Donor Plate to Substrate 407
Figure 8.73   Edge Quality of 95 µm Lines Formed by LITI  408
Figure 8.74   Applicability of the LITI Process  408
Figure 8.75   Laser Heating and Film Transfer  409
Figure 8.76   Schematic of the LITI Process  409
Figure 8.77   Optimization of Laser Dose in LITI  409
Figure 8.78   Dithering in the LITI Process  410
Figure 8.79   High Resolution Patterning Through LITI  410
Figure 8.80   OLED Sub-Pixels Patterned by LITI  411
Figure 8.81   LITI Gen 4 Pilot Equipment  412
Figure 8.82   Radiation-Induced Sublimation Transfer 413
Figure 8.83   J-V and L-J plots for Dev ices Fabricated by Solution Processing and Vacuum Ev aporation 415
Figure 8.84   Chemical Structures of Materials Used for Printing Phosphorescent OLEDs  416
Figure 8.85   Schematic Diagram Showing Deposition of Poly mer Materials into Preformed Structures  418
Figure 8.86   Scheme of Interactions for Ink-Jet Printing Requirements 418
Figure 8.87   Continuous Ink-Jet  420
Figure 8.88   Structure of a Piezo Micro Deposition System  421
Figure 8.89   Variation in Jet Direction for Stainless Steel and Nick el Nozzle Plates 422
Figure 8.90   Silicon Fluid Chamber Inlet with Impedance Matching Posts 423
Figure 8.91   Silicon Fluid Chamber Outlet with Descender Opening
Figure 8.92   Structured PZT with Deposited Electrode  424
Figure 8.93   Drying Mechanisms of a Water-Based Ink-Jet Drop on a Plain Paper  425
Figure 8.94   SEM Photographs of Phase-Change Ink Drops on the Surface of a Bond Paper  426
Figure 8.95   1 pl Silv er Drops on Silicon 427
Figure 8.96   1 pl Silv er Drops on Kapton 428
Figure 8.97   1 pl Silv er Lines on Kapton 429
Figure 8.98   Silver Ink Circuit Printed on Kapton with 1 pl Print-head  430
Figure 8.99   Drop Formation in Normal Liquid (top) and a Solution with Large Poly mers (bottom) 431
Figure 8.100   AFM of Ink-jetted Films of Poly mer Blend (left) and Single Component Material (right)  432
Figure 8.101   Microbank Structures to Define Sub-pixels 434
Figure 8.102   Microbank Structures After Filling 434
Figure 8.103   Pixel Structure for P-OLED Display with 250 µm Pitch  435
Figure 8.104   Flat Film Formation Goals  435
Figure 8.105   Film Uniformity Achiev ed by Pre-deposition Surface Treatment 436
Figure 8.106   Wetting Effects of Plasma Treatment 436
Figure 8.107   Effect of Surface Pre-Treatment on PEDOT Film Formation: Without Pre-Treatment (left) and With Pre-Treatment (right) 437
Figure 8.108   Bank Structures for AM-OLED W ithout Cathode Separation  437
Figure 8.109   SEM Images of Fabricated Mold (a) and Transferred Pixel Array Patterns (b) 438
Figure 8.110   Self-Aligned Bank Formation Process  438
Figure 8.111   Transfer Technique for Patterning Bank Structures on Plastic Films  439
Figure 8.112   MACH and MLChips Heads  441
Figure 8.113   Ink Chambers in Micro-Piezo Heads 441
Figure 8.114   Variation in Drop Position on Substrate  442
Figure 8.115   Dependence of Drop Positioning upon Directional Control and Throw Distance  443
Figure 8.116   Tail Accretion Due to Surface Tension 444
Figure 8.117   Nozzle-to-Nozzle Variation in Drop Velocity 444
Figure 8.118   Effect of Real-Time Control on Drop Velocity  445
Figure 8.119   Velocity Variation Across the 128-Nozzle Print-head  446
Figure 8.120   Four Row Nozzle Array Inclined at 300  447
Figure 8.121   Multiple Drop Deposition from Inclined Head Arrays  
Figure 8.122   Drop Placement Error Across Nozzles 448
Figure 8.123   Positional Error Across the Substrate  449
Figure 8.124   Schematic of Gen 7/Gen 8 Ink-Jet Printer 450
Figure 8.125   Maintenance Module of Gen 7/Gen 8 Ink-Jet Printer  
Figure 8.126   Array of 100 × 300 µm Pixels Printed Using 50 µm Diameter Drops  451
Figure 8.127   Comparison of Efficiency of Spin-Coated and Ink-Jet Printed Devices Using P-OLED Materials  451
Figure 8.128   Prototype 2.1" 130 ppi P-OLED Panel  452
Figure 8.129   Color Gamut and Gray Scale for 2.1" 130 ppi P-OLED Panel  452
Figure 8.130   40" Prototype Poly mer OLED Panel  453
Figure 8.131   Nozzle Jetting Sy stem  454
Figure 8.132   Film Uniformity from Nozzle Jetting System  454
Figure 8.133   Blank et Printing of the Emitting Lay er 455
Figure 8.134   Solution Processing of Small Molecule Material 455
Figure 8.135   Drylox Cov er Glass Encapsulation 456
Figure 8.136   Solution process for OLED display  456
Figure 8.137   Color Conversion of PPVs by UV Irradiation  457
Figure 8.138   Patterns Produced by Photolithography in Monochrome and Full-Color Panels  458
Figure 8.139   Gravure Printing System  459
Figure 8.140   Flexible OLED Patterned by Gravure Printing  459
Figure 8.141   P-OLED Patterning on Glass by New Relief Printing
Figure 8.142   7.4" P-OLED Demo by New Relief Printing  461
Figure 8.143   Hybrid OLED Structure  462
Figure 8.144   EPLaR Process  463
Figure 8.145   TFT Array s Fabricated on Polyimide by the EPLaR Process  463
Figure 8.146   EPLaR Array s of a-Si TFTs 464
Figure 8.147   Transfer Process for TFT Backplanes  465
Figure 8.148   Transferred Lay er and LTPS Array on 0.2 mm Plastic Substrate  465
Figure 8.149   SUFTLA Process Steps 466
Figure 8.150   I-V Characteristics of SUFTLA TFTs  466
Figure 8.151   OLED Pixel Structure with SUFTLA Backplane  467
Figure 8.152   Organic TFT Backplane for a 15" LCD  468
Figure 8.153   Structure and Fabrication Processes for Pentacene TFTs  468
Figure 8.154   Printed Organic Pixel Structure for Electrophoretic Display  469
Figure 8.155   Pixel to Pixel Variation in TFT Currents  470
Figure 8.156   Printing Protection Lay er for Poly thiophene Semiconductor  471
Figure 8.157   Gold Circuits on PET Produced by Laser Ablation  
Figure 8.158   Roll-to-Roll Sy stem for Laser Patterning  472
Figure 8.159   Creating Vias and Channels in Polyimide by Laser Ablation  472
Figure 8.160   Roll-to-Roll Sy stem for Laser Patterning  473
Figure 8.161   Beam Deliv ery Optics for Laser Patterning in Scanning Mode  474
Figure 8.162   PDP Electrodes and Bus Lines Patterned by Laser Ablation 474
Figure 8.163   Process Flow in the Glass Frit Encapsulation Process 476
Figure 8.164   Reel of Desiccant Material Ready for Lamination  
Figure 8.165   Sealing Process with Shaped Covers 477
Figure 8.166   Drylox Concept for OLED Encapsulation  478
Figure 8.167   Pixel Erosion Rate 479
Figure 8.168   Higher Lifetime Through Improved Encapsulation 479
Figure 8.169   Evolution from Batch to In-Line Processing 480
Figure 8.170   In-Line PLED Fabrication  481
Figure 8.171   In-Line Vacuum Design  481
Figure 8.172   Characteristics of Ink-Jet Printers 482
Figure 8.173   In-Line PLED Fabrication  482
Figure 8.174   Deposition Sy stem for Phosphorescent OLEDs  483
Figure 9.1     AMOLED Capacity Conversion Forecast  489
Figure 9.2     PMOLED Supply/Demand 490
Figure 9.3     AMOLED Supply/Demand 491
Figure 9.4     Organic Material Value Forecast Range 496
Figure 10.1    LCD and OLED Structure Lay ers 498
Figure 10.2    ASP of 4" 480 × 800 Pixel Display s by Technology  
Figure 10.3    Gen 8 Mother Glass Cuts for 55" TV  503
Figure 10.4    Cost Comparison for Solution, Evaporation on Full Substrates, and Evaporation of 1/6-Sheet Substrates  504
Figure 10.5    55" OLED Fabrication Cost (Excluding TFT and Module)  505

List of Tables

Table 1.1    OLED Display Shipment Forecast (000)  14
Table 1.2    OLED Display Rev enue Forecast (US$ millions)  15
Table 2.1    Key Ev ents in the Commercialization of OLEDs 22
Table 2.2    Comparison of AMOLED and AMLCD Performance  27
Table 3.1    Full Color OLEDs with Hybrid CCM 51
Table 3.2    Comparison of Top and Bottom Emission AMOLED  70
Table 3.3    White Emitters with Color Filter Compared to RGB Sources  73
Table 3.4    Summary of Performance of Polymer OLED Materials in 2005  85
Table 3.5    Summary of Performance of Polymer OLED Materials at the End of 2010  86
Table 3.6    Summary of Performance of Phosphorescence OLED Materials in 2007 90
Table 3.7    Summary of Performance of Phosphorescence OLED Materials in 2010 90
Table 3.8    Characteristics of Emitting Materials  92
Table 5.1    Comparison of Incandescent, Fluorescent, High Intensity Discharge (HID) and OLED Lighting  99
Table 5.2    Comparison of LED, EL and OLED Lighting  100
Table 5.3    Comparison of OLED Display and OLED Lighting  104
Table 5.4    OLED Lighting Component and Material Cost ($/m²) 105
Table 5.5    OLED Lighting Manufacturing Cost (US$/m²)  106
Table 5.6    OLED Panel (not final luminaire) Performance Forecast  124
Table 5.7    OLED Luminaire (including OLED panel, and fixture and driv er) Performance Forecast  125
Table 6.1    Blue Material Performance  134
Table 6.2    Characteristics of the OLED with Varying HBL Thickness 139
Table 6.3    CIE Coordinates of Emission from Various Dopant Mixtures  150
Table 6.4    Performance Targets for HDTVs by Technology (2009 parameters) 155
Table 6.5    Distribution of R G B W Light 156
Table 6.6    Summary of Performance of Phosphorescence OLED Materials in 2007 163
Table 6.7    Summary of Performance of Phosphorescence OLED Materials in 2011 163
Table 6.8    Cross Section of a Typical PHOLED Device  164
Table 6.9    Comparison of Performance of Two Hole Injection Lay ers 175
Table 6.10   Summary of Performance of Polymer OLED Materials in 2005  177
Table 6.11   Summary of Performance of Polymer OLED Materials at the end of 2010  178
Table 6.12   Performance of Green Dendrimers with Phosphorescent Cores  183
Table 6.13   Alternativ e Material for Transparent Anodes  190
Table 6.14   Work Functions of Cathode Materials 193
Table 6.15   Characteristics of Transparent Plastic Substrates  
Table 6.16   Coefficient of Thermal Expansion for Teonex Q65  216
Table 7.1    Reference Sizes and Currents for Target OLEDs (assume current density of 10 mA/cm²)  249
Table 7.2    A-Si TFT on Plastic 257
Table 7.3    Comparison of Voltage and Current Driv e of OLED Pixels 265
Table 7.4    TFT Lay ers: Function and Material  276
Table 7.5    Comparison of LTPS, a-Si and Oxide TFT for AMOLED
Table 7.6    High Resolution AMOLED Mobile Phones  282
Table 7.7    Comparison of ULTPS Process and the Standard LTPS TFT Process  285
Table 7.8    Pixel Current and Gate Aspect Ratio for Optimal a-Si TFTs 293
Table 7.9    Comparison of Multi-Component Oxide TFT for High-Volume Manufacturing 305
Table 7.10   Characteristics of Driv er ICs for PM-OLEDs 332
Table 7.11   Passiv e Matrix Driv ers  336
Table 7.12   Possible Structures for Non-Volatile Memory  338
Table 8.1    Comparison of Techniques for Color Patterning OLED Stacks  342
Table 8.2    Tool Set in OLED Fabrication Line  346
Table 8.3    Unique Process & Equipment Requirements for LTPS  351
Table 8.4    Advantages and Disadvantages of LTPS TFT Device Structures  353
Table 8.5    Common LTPS Device Materials and Dimensions 354
Table 8.6    Thermal Processes and Typical Maximum Temperatures  
Table 8.7    Effect of Plasma Treatment upon Wetting Contact Angle 365
Table 8.8    Performance of OLED Dev ices with Capped ITO  366
Table 8.9    Properties of Sputter Deposited Films  367
Table 8.10   Goals for Next Generation OLED Vacuum Deposition Sy stem 381
Table 8.11   Process Parameters for OVPD and Vacuum Thermal Ev aporation  401
Table 8.12   Comparison of Some Solution Printing Processes  417
Table 8.13   Display Requirements and Ink-Jet Printing Sy stem Attributes  419
Table 8.14   Composition  425
Table 8.15   Phase-Change Ink Composition  426
Table 8.16   Drying Mechanisms for Different Ink-Jet Ink s  427
Table 8.17   Desired Performance Parameters for IJP Heads 440
Table 8.18   Dev elopment Plan for IJP Heads Line Width (µm) 440
Table 8.19   Effect of Gap and Directional Control on Placement Accuracy (red numerals) in µm 443
Table 9.1    PMOLED Fabs  485
Table 9.2    AMOLED Fabs with Install Dates Through 2009)  486
Table 9.3    AMOLED Fabs with Installations 2010 Through 2014  
Table 9.4    Small Molecule Material Price ­ All Fluorescent 493
Table 9.5    Small/Molecule Material Price for Phosphorescent Red and Green  493
Table 9.6    Small/Molecule Material Cost/Panel (US$) for Point Source (3" Display ) ­ Phosphorescent Red, and Fluorescent Green and Blue  494
Table 9.7    OLED Display Demand Area (000 m²) 495
Table 9.8    Organic Material Demand by Lay er 495
Table 9.9    Small/Molecule Material Cost/(US$) ­ Phosphorescent Red, Fluorescent Green and Blue 495
Table 9.10   Organic Material Value by Lay er (US$ Millions) 496
Table 10.1   Manufacturing Cost of 3.5" 320 × 240 Pixel Display s by Technology  499
Table 10.2   ASP of 4" 480 × 800 Pixel Display s by Technology  
Table 10.3   OLED Deposition Costs ($) Under Multiple Process Scenarios  500
Table 10.4   OLED Support Costs ($) Under Multiple Process Scenarios  501
Table 10.5   OLED Array Costs ($) Under Multiple Process Scenarios 501
Table 10.6   OLED Process Costs ($) Under Multiple Process Scenarios  501
Table 10.7   OLED Module Costs ($) Under Multiple Process Scenarios 502